What is Philosophy?
Philosophy is a broad and diverse discipline that deals with
a wide range of topics and questions about fundamental aspects of human
existence, knowledge, ethics, reality, and the nature of reality. Here are some
of the main areas that philosophy encompasses:
1.
Metaphysics: Metaphysics explores
the nature of reality, existence, and the fundamental nature of being.
It investigates questions about the nature of reality, the existence of God,
the mind-body problem, free will, determinism, and the nature of time.
2.
Epistemology: Epistemology is concerned
with the nature of knowledge, belief, and justification. It
examines questions such as: What can we know? How do we know what we know? What
is the nature of truth? What are the limits of human knowledge?
3.
Ethics: Ethics focuses on questions of
morality, values, and how we ought to live. It explores ethical
theories, such as consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics, and examines
ethical dilemmas, moral reasoning, the nature of right and wrong, and the
foundations of ethical systems.
4.
Logic: Logic studies the principles
of correct reasoning and argumentation. It investigates concepts such
as deduction, induction, logical fallacies, and formal systems of reasoning.
Logic is crucial for analyzing and evaluating arguments in various areas of
philosophy and beyond.
5.
Philosophy of Mind: The philosophy of
mind explores questions about the nature of consciousness, the
relationship between the mind and the body, the nature of mental states, and
the problem of identity over time. It addresses questions such as: What is the
nature of consciousness? Can machines or computers have minds? What is the
relationship between brain and mind?
6.
Philosophy of Language: Philosophy of
language examines the nature of language, meaning, and
communication. It delves into questions about the relationship between words
and reality, the nature of linguistic meaning, the role of language in thought,
and the limits of language.
7.
Political Philosophy: Political
philosophy deals with questions of political theory, governance, justice,
and the organization of society. It explores topics such as the nature of
political authority, distributive justice, human rights, the role of the state,
and the relationship between individuals and society.
8.
Aesthetics: Aesthetics focuses on questions
of beauty, art, and the nature of aesthetic experiences. It explores
questions such as: What is art? What is the nature of beauty? How do we
appreciate and evaluate works of art?
These are just a few examples of the many areas that
philosophy covers. Philosophy is a dynamic discipline that continues to evolve
and engage with new questions and challenges as human understanding and
knowledge progress.
Here's a timeline of some world-famous philosophers and
their approximate time periods:
1. Socrates (469 BC - 399 BC)
2. Plato (428/427 BC - 348/347 BC)
3. Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC)
4. Epicurus (341 BC - 270 BC)
5. Seneca the Younger (4 BC - 65 AD)
6. Marcus Aurelius (121 AD - 180 AD)
7. Augustine of Hippo (354 AD - 430 AD)
8. Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274)
9. RenΓ© Descartes (1596 - 1650)
10. John Locke (1632 - 1704)
11.
12. David Hume (1711 - 1776)
13. Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804)
14. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770 - 1831)
15.
16. SΓΈren Kierkegaard (1813 - 1855)
17. Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)
18. Friedrich Engels (1820 - 1895)
19.
20. Albert Camus (1913 - 1960)
21. Confucius (551 BC - 479 BC)
22. Laozi (6th century BC)
23. Zhuangzi (4th century BC)
24. Nagarjuna (circa 150 - 250 AD)
25. Avicenna (980 - 1037)
26. Averroes (1126 - 1198)
27. Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)
28. Benedict de Spinoza /Baruch Spinoza(1632 - 1677)
29. Voltaire (1694 - 1778)
30. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778)
31. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 - 1832)
32. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 - 1860)
33. John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873)
34. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844 - 1900)
35. Bertrand Russell (1872 - 1970)
36. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889 - 1951)
37. Martin Heidegger (1889 - 1976)
38. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905 - 1980)
39. Simone de Beauvoir (1908 - 1986)
40. Michel Foucault (1926 - 1984)
Additional philosophers
Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)
Hannah Arendt (1906 - 1975)
Jacques Derrida (1930 - 2004)
Noam Chomsky (1928 - Present)
Judith Butler (1956 - Present)
Slavoj Ε½iΕΎek (1949 - Present)
Martha Nussbaum (1947 - Present)
Peter Singer (1946 - Present)
JΓΌrgen Habermas (1929 - Present)
Alain Badiou (1937 - Present)
Philosophical Movements
Ancient
philosophical movements
Pre-Socratic Philosophy (6th century BCE –
5th century BCE): This period encompasses the philosophical ideas
that emerged before the time of Socrates. It includes various thinkers such as
Thales, Anaximander, Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Parmenides, and Democritus, who
sought to explain the nature of the universe and the fundamental principles
underlying it.
(I)
[Classical Greek Philosophy (5th
century BCE – 4th century BCE)] : This period is marked by the
philosophical contributions of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, who laid the
foundation for Western philosophy. Socrates focused on ethics and the
examination of one’s own beliefs, Plato developed metaphysical and ethical
theories, and Aristotle contributed to logic, metaphysics, ethics, and natural
sciences.
(II)
Hellenistic Philosophy (3rd
century BCE – 3rd century CE): Following the death of Alexander the
Great, Hellenistic philosophy emerged, characterized by schools such as
Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism. Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium,
emphasized ethics and the pursuit of virtue. Epicureanism, founded by Epicurus,
advocated for the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. Skepticism,
represented by figures like Pyrrho of Elis, advocated for the suspension of
judgment.
(III)
Neoplatonism (3rd century CE –
6th century CE): Neoplatonism, founded by Plotinus, blended elements
of Platonic philosophy with mystical and religious ideas. It emphasized the
existence of a transcendent realm of reality and the pursuit of union with the
divine.
Confusianism : Confucianism is a philosophical and
ethical system that originated in ancient China. It was developed by Confucius
(Kongzi or Kong Fuzi) in the 5th century BCE and has since played a significant
role in Chinese culture, society, and governance. Confucianism is not a
religion in the traditional sense but has strong moral and social teachings
that have influenced various aspects of Chinese life. Confucianism emphasizes the importance of
moral values, social harmony, filial piety, and the cultivation of virtue. It
seeks to provide guidance for individuals and society to achieve a harmonious
and righteous way of life.
Platonic realism : Platonism (4th century BCE - 6th
century CE): Platonism refers to the philosophy inspired by the ideas of Plato.
It emphasized the existence of an eternal realm of Forms or Ideas and the
pursuit of knowledge and truth through reason and contemplation.
Aristotelianism : Aristotelianism (4th century BCE -
6th century CE): Aristotelianism, based on the teachings of Aristotle, focused
on a wide range of disciplines, including metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics,
and natural sciences. It emphasized empirical observation and a systematic
approach to understanding the world.
Pythagoreanism : (6th century BCE - 4th century BCE):
Pythagoreanism, attributed to the mathematician Pythagoras and his followers,
combined mathematical and mystical principles. It believed in the harmony of
numbers and the idea of reincarnation. It said that universe can be understood
mathematically.
Pyrrhonism/Scepticism (3rd century BCE – 3rd
century CE): Scepticism, influenced by the ideas of Pyrrho of Elis, advocated
for the suspension of judgment and the recognition of the limitations of human
knowledge. It emphasized the exploration of opposing arguments and
perspectives.
Epicurianism : Epicureanism (3rd century BCE - 3rd
century CE): Epicureanism, founded by Epicurus, promoted the pursuit of
pleasure as the highest good, but understood pleasure as tranquility and the
absence of pain. It emphasized moderation, friendship, and the importance of
living a simple and self-sufficient life. It says to chase pleasure
responsibly. While both hedonism and Epicureanism share a common interest in
pleasure and happiness, Epicureanism incorporates additional philosophical
principles and considerations beyond pure pleasure-seeking.
Hedonism : It is a philosophical concept that centers
around the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain as the ultimate goals
in life. The concept of hedonism can be traced back to ancient Greek
philosophy, with various philosophers contributing to its development. One of
the earliest proponents of hedonism was Aristippus of Cyrene (c. 435-356 BCE),
a student of Socrates. In short , it says that ‘every action that gives
pleasure is morally good’’. It also says to chase pleasure blindly.
Stoicism : Stoicism (3rd century BCE - 6th century
CE): Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium, taught the importance of living in
accordance with nature, accepting the inevitable and practicing self-control.
It emphasized virtue, reason, and the development of inner resilience.
Cynicism: Cynicism (4th century BCE – 3rd
century CE): Cynicism, associated with figures like Diogenes of Sinope,
promoted a rejection of societal conventions, material possessions, and
desires. It emphasized living a simple and virtuous life in accordance with
nature.
Sophism (5th century BCE – 4th
century BCE): Sophism refers to the teachings of itinerant intellectuals known
as Sophists. They offered instruction in various subjects, including rhetoric,
ethics, and politics. Sophists focused on the practical application of
knowledge and the art of persuasion.
Atomism (5th century BCE – 3rd
century BCE): Atomism, primarily associated with Leucippus and his student
Democritus, posited that all matter consists of indivisible and indestructible
particles called atoms. It offered a materialistic and mechanistic view of the
universe.
Eclecticism (2nd century BCE – 6th
century CE): Eclecticism refers to the philosophical practice of combining
ideas and doctrines from different philosophical schools. It sought to create a
comprehensive and coherent system by selecting and synthesizing elements from
various philosophical traditions.
Medieval
philosophical movements
Neo- Confusianism: Neo-Confucianism (10th
century CE – 19th century CE): Neo-Confucianism emerged during the
Song dynasty in China, blending Confucian principles with Buddhist and Taoist
ideas. It focused on moral cultivation, the pursuit of wisdom, and the
promotion of social harmony.
Neo-Platonism : Neoplatonism (3rd century - 6th century):
Neoplatonism, which originated in the late ancient period, continued to
influence medieval thought. Figures like Plotinus and Proclus promoted the idea
of transcendent reality, the hierarchy of being, and the pursuit of divine
contemplation.
Scotism / Nominalism and Realism (11th century - 14th
century): Nominalism and Realism were opposing views on the nature of
universals or abstract concepts. Nominalists, such as William of Ockham, held
that universals are mere names or mental constructs, while Realists, like Peter
Abelard and John Duns Scotus, argued for the existence of real universals.
Scholasticism : Scholasticism (11th century - 16th
century): Scholasticism emerged in medieval Europe and sought to reconcile
Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy. It involved rigorous logical
analysis and dialectical reasoning, with prominent figures including Thomas
Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham.
Mysticism (11th century – 16th
century): Mysticism refers to various spiritual and contemplative movements
that emphasized direct experiences of the divine. Mystical thinkers, such as
Meister Eckhart, Hildegard of Bingen, and John of the Cross, sought union with
God through prayer, meditation, and mystical practices.
Islamic Philosophy (8th century – 14th
century): Islamic philosophy flourished during the Islamic Golden Age.
Thinkers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna (Ibn Sina), and Averroes (Ibn Rushd)
explored a wide range of subjects, including metaphysics, ethics, logic, and
philosophy of science, while engaging with both Greek and Islamic traditions.
Averroism (12th century – 15th
century): Averroism refers to the philosophical views associated with Averroes
(Ibn Rushd), an Islamic philosopher in the medieval period. Averroists sought
to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Islamic theology, particularly in the
areas of metaphysics, ethics, and the immortality of the soul.
Sufi Philosophy (9th century – 15th
century): Sufi philosophy emerged within Islamic mysticism (Sufism) and
delved into metaphysical and spiritual dimensions of existence. Prominent Sufi
philosophers, such as Al-Ghazali and Ibn Arabi, explored the concept of divine
love, the path to union with God, and the nature of the soul.
Augustinianism (4th century – 15th
century): Augustinianism refers to the philosophical and theological ideas
associated with Saint Augustine of Hippo. Augustine explored topics such as
free will, original sin, grace, and the nature of God. His writings had a
profound influence on Christian thought throughout the medieval period.
Alchemy (3rd century – 16th
century): Alchemy, an early precursor to modern chemistry, was a
philosophical and protoscientific tradition that aimed to transform and perfect
matter. Alchemists, such as Geber and Ramon Llull, pursued the transmutation of
base metals into noble ones and sought the elixir of life.
Thomism / Christian Aristotelianism (12th century - 16th
century): Christian Aristotelianism involved the integration of
Aristotelian philosophy into Christian theology. Figures like Albertus Magnus
and Thomas Aquinas attempted to reconcile the teachings of Aristotle with
Christian doctrines, particularly in the areas of natural philosophy and ethics.
Occamism (14th century – 16th
century): Occamism, named after William of Ockham, emphasized simplicity
and razor-sharp logic. Occam’s Razor, the principle that the simplest
explanation is often the best, became a significant contribution to philosophical
and scientific reasoning.
Kabbalah (12th century – 16th
century): Kabbalah is a mystical and esoteric tradition within Judaism that
explores the hidden meanings of the Torah and the nature of God. Kabbalistic
thinkers, such as Moses de Leon and Isaac Luria, delved into metaphysical
realms, divine emanations, and the path to spiritual enlightenment.
Modern
philosophical movements
Renaissance Humanism / Humanism (14th century – 17th
century): Although the Renaissance period bridges the gap between the
medieval and modern eras, Renaissance Humanism had significant philosophical
influence. Humanists, such as Petrarch and Erasmus, emphasized the study of
classical texts, human dignity, and the potential for human achievement. It
brought the Shift from God centred
universe to man centred universe.
Jewish Philosophy (9th century – 15th
century): Jewish philosophers in the medieval period, such as Saadia Gaon,
Maimonides, and Gersonides, engaged with both Jewish religious texts and
philosophical ideas from Greek and Islamic traditions. They sought to harmonize
Jewish theology with rational inquiry.
Enlightenment (17th century – 18th
century): The Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural movement that
emphasized reason, scientific inquiry, and human progress. Prominent
Enlightenment thinkers, such as Immanuel Kant, Voltaire, and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, sought to challenge traditional authority, promote individual
freedoms, and advance social and political reforms.
Pragmatism (late 19th century - early 20th century):
Pragmatism, developed by philosophers such as Charles Peirce, William James,
and John Dewey, emphasized the practical consequences of beliefs and ideas. It
stressed the importance of practical problem-solving, experimentation, and the
interaction between thought and action.
Existentialismm : Existentialism (20th century):
Existentialism, associated with thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus,
and Simone de Beauvoir, focused on the individual's subjective experience,
freedom, choice, and responsibility in an inherently absurd and meaningless
world. Existentialism emphasized personal authenticity and the exploration of
existential themes. Its first philosopher is Soren kierkegaad. It simply says
'’ the universe is inherently meaningless but we can give order and meaning to
it but Nihilism says that universe is meaningless and we can’t give
meaning to it’’ . Fredrick Nietzsche emphasized a '’ will to power '’.
Logical Positivism : Logical Positivism, also known
as Logical Empiricism, was a philosophical movement that emerged in the early
20th century, primarily associated with the Vienna Circle and its members. It
sought to establish a rigorous and scientific foundation for knowledge and
meaning through the application of logic and empirical verification. Logical Positivism was influenced by the work
of philosophers such as Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath, and Moritz Schlick. It was
a response to the perceived problems of traditional metaphysics and sought to
establish a unified and verifiable scientific language for describing the
world.
Logicism : Logicism is a philosophical and
foundational approach to mathematics that emerged in the late 19th and early
20th centuries. It seeks to ground mathematics in logic and view mathematical
truths as logical truths. Logicism was primarily championed by philosophers and
mathematicians such as Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell. The main idea of logicism is to reduce
mathematics to logic by representing mathematical concepts and propositions in
terms of logical symbols and principles. It holds that mathematics is a branch
of formal logic and that mathematical truths can be derived from logical axioms
and rules of inference.
Modernism : Modernism is a cultural and intellectual
movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, spanning
roughly from the late 1800s to the mid-20th century. It is characterized by a
break from traditional artistic, literary, and cultural forms and a radical
experimentation with new modes of expression.
Modernism can be understood as a response to the rapid social,
technological, and cultural changes that accompanied industrialization and
urbanization. It sought to capture the essence of the modern experience and
reflect the fragmented, disorienting, and uncertain nature of modern life.
Rationalism : Rationalism (17th century - 18th
century): Rationalism, associated with philosophers such as RenΓ© Descartes,
Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, emphasized the role of reason in
acquiring knowledge. Rationalists held that certain fundamental truths could be
known through innate ideas or through deductive reasoning.
Empiricism (17th century – 18th
century): Empiricism, represented by philosophers like John Locke, George
Berkeley, and David Hume, argued that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory
experience. Empiricists held that all ideas originate from experience, and
there are no innate ideas.
German Idealism (late 18th century – early 19th
century): German Idealism, spearheaded by philosophers like Immanuel Kant,
Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Schelling, and G.W.F. Hegel, aimed to
reconcile rationalism and empiricism while exploring the nature of
consciousness, freedom, and the role of the mind in shaping reality.
Utilitarianism (19th century): Utilitarianism,
advocated by philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, posits
that actions should be evaluated based on their overall utility or happiness
they produce for the greatest number of people. It is a consequentialist
ethical theory that influenced moral and political philosophy. It says that the
right course of action maximizes utility/happiness and reduces
suffering.
Phenomenology (early 20th century):
Phenomenology, developed by Edmund Husserl and expanded upon by Martin
Heidegger and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, aimed to describe and analyze human
consciousness and the structures of experience. It emphasized the direct study
of phenomena as they are given to consciousness.
Analytic Philosophy (20th century):
Analytic philosophy emerged in the early 20th century, primarily in
the English-speaking world. It focuses on the clarification of concepts and the
analysis of language. Prominent figures include Bertrand Russell, Ludwig
Wittgenstein, and Willard Van Orman Quine.
Contemporary
philosophical movements
Deconstructionism : Deconstruction is a philosophical and
critical theory that emerged in the 20th century, primarily associated with the
work of the French philosopher Jacques Derrida. It is a method of textual
analysis and a way of questioning and destabilizing traditional assumptions
about language, meaning, and reality. Deconstruction challenges the idea that
language can accurately represent or capture the essence of reality. It argues
that language is inherently unstable, filled with contradictions, and subject
to multiple interpretations. According to deconstruction, texts contain
internal tensions and contradictions that reveal the limitations and biases of
language and the underlying structures of meaning.
Emotiveism : It says that moral statements are
entirely unverifiable and they are people’s emotional response to a given situation.
Objectivism : Objectivism is a philosophical system
developed by Ayn Rand (1905-1985) in the mid-20th century. It encompasses a set
of principles and ideas that emphasize individualism, reason, and
self-interest. Ayn Rand outlined her philosophy in various works, including her
novels such as "The Fountainhead" and "Atlas Shrugged," as
well as non-fiction works like "The Virtue of Selfishness." . It says
that this world is real and we are in it. we can know reality through sense perception.
Continental Philosophy (20th century –
present): Continental philosophy encompasses a diverse range of approaches
and thinkers, including phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics, and
critical theory. It emphasizes the interpretation of human existence, social
and cultural critique, and the intersection of philosophy with other
disciplines, such as literature, psychology, and sociology.
Miscellaneous
Marxism : Marxism is a social, political, and
economic theory that originated in the 19th century with the works of Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels. It provides a framework for understanding society,
history, and the dynamics of class struggle. Marxism seeks to analyze and
critique the capitalist system and offers a vision for achieving a more
equitable and classless society.
Feminism: Feminism is a social, political, and
intellectual movement that advocates for gender equality and the rights and
empowerment of women. It emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and
has since evolved and diversified, encompassing a range of perspectives and
approaches. The first wave, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, focused
on women's suffrage and legal rights. The second wave, in the 1960s and 1970s,
addressed broader social and cultural issues, including reproductive rights and
workplace equality. The third wave, from the 1990s onwards, expanded the focus
to include intersectionality and diverse experiences of women. Additionally,
there are various feminist theories and perspectives, such as liberal feminism,
radical feminism, socialist feminism, and postcolonial feminism, which
highlight different aspects and dimensions of gender inequality.
Postmodernism : Postmodernism (late 20th century):
Postmodernism is a philosophical and cultural movement that challenges
established theories, meta-narratives, and claims of objective truth. It
emphasizes the role of language, power, and social constructs in shaping
knowledge and reality. Key thinkers include Jean-François Lyotard, Michel
Foucault, and Jacques Derrida.
Postcolonialism :Postcolonialism emerged as an
intellectual and academic movement in the mid-20th century, following the end
of formal colonial rule in many parts of the world. It seeks to examine the
social, cultural, political, and economic legacies of colonialism and imperialism
and explore the experiences of colonized peoples.
Liberalism : Liberalism emerged as a political and
philosophical movement in the 17th and 18th centuries during the Enlightenment
period. Liberalism is a political ideology that emphasizes individual rights,
liberty, equality, and limited government intervention.
Transcendentalism: Transcendentalism emerged as a
philosophical and literary movement in the early to mid-19th century, primarily
in the United States. It was influenced by European Romanticism, particularly
the works of German philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Schelling.
Transcendentalists believed in the existence of a higher spiritual reality that
transcends the material world. They emphasized the power of intuition and
direct experience in gaining knowledge of this spiritual realm, arguing that
individuals can access divine truths through personal insight and reflection. Some
notable figures associated with Transcendentalism include Ralph Waldo Emerson,
Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, and Bronson Alcott.
Anarchism : Anarchism emerged as a political
philosophy and movement in the 19th century. Anarchism advocates for a society
without centralized authority, where individuals have maximum freedom and
autonomy. Instead of hierarchical structures of power, anarchists propose
voluntary cooperation, mutual aid, and decentralized decision-making.
Poststructuralism
: Poststructuralism (20th century - present): Poststructuralism builds
upon and critiques structuralism, emphasizing the instability of meaning, the
role of language and discourse in shaping reality, and the deconstruction of
hierarchical structures. Thinkers like Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and
Gilles Deleuze are associated with poststructuralism.
Environmental Philosophy (20th century –
present): Environmental philosophy explores the relationship between humans
and the natural world, addressing topics such as ecological ethics,
environmental justice, sustainability, and the rights of non-human entities. It
seeks to develop ethical frameworks and philosophies that promote ecological
responsibility.
Philosophy of Mind and Cognitive Science (20th
century – present): Philosophy of mind and cognitive science examine the
nature of consciousness, the mind-body problem, perception, cognition, and the
relationship between the brain and mental states. Philosophers in this field
engage with interdisciplinary research from psychology, neuroscience, and
artificial intelligence.
Applied Ethics (20th century - present): Applied
ethics involves the application of ethical theories and principles to specific
real-world issues, such as bioethics (e.g., medical ethics, reproductive
ethics), environmental ethics, business ethics, and technology ethics. It
addresses moral dilemmas and seeks to provide ethical guidance in practical
contexts.
LGBT philosophy: Also known as queer philosophy or
philosophy of sexuality, is a branch of philosophy that focuses on issues
related to sexual orientation, gender identity, and the experiences of lesbian,
gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals. It explores the social, cultural,
ethical, and political dimensions of sexuality and gender, and addresses
questions of identity, discrimination, and equality. It says that there are more than two sexes and
if a man claims be a woman, he is a woman.
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Note: All these philosophies and philosophers try to guide you on how to live in the world, but all these philosophies are incomplete. They don't address all aspects of your life. In case you want to live with the least anxiety and tension in the world, then explore Islam. Islam is the complete way of life.
( Sahil Sharifdin Bhat )
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