The Three Major Creedal Schools of Sunni Islam: Ashʿari, Māturīdī and Athari

The Three Major Creedal Schools of Sunni Islam: Ashʿari, Māturīdī and Athari 

 [أنَّ العامي لا مذهبَ لہ — A layman has no Madhab]

Introduction  

There are four surviving fiqhi schools in Islam—Hanafi, Maliki, Shafiʿi and Hanbali—and three creedal schools—Athari, Maturidi and Ashʿari.

Extinct schools of fiqh (jurisprudence) :

Awzāʿī School, Thawrī School , Zāhirī School,Laythī School, Jarīrī School (Madhhab al-Jarīrī or Ṭabarī School), Ṭabarī School etc. 

In Sunni Islam, theological disputes over divine attributes, free will and the role of reason in faith led to the formation of distinct creedal (aqidah) schools. The three most influential are the Ashʿari, Māturīdī and Athari schools. Each offers a unique approach to Islamic theology, balancing scripture, reason and tradition. This article explores their origins, key doctrines, differences, prominent scholars and foundational texts. Additionally, we will briefly examine the creedal school followed by Shia Muslims.  

1. The Ashʿari School  

Founder and Origins  

The Ashʿari school was founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Ashʿari (d. 936 CE / 324 AH) in Basra, Iraq. Initially a Muʿtazili theologian, al-Ashʿari underwent a dramatic shift and developed a middle-ground theology that countered extreme rationalism while avoiding rigid literalism.  

Key Doctrines  

- Divine Attributes: Affirms God’s attributes but interprets ambiguous (mutashābihāt) verses metaphorically when necessary (e.g. God’s "hand" signifies power, not a physical limb).  

- Reason & Revelation: Uses rational arguments but subordinates them to scripture (naql).  

- Quran’s Nature: Rejects the Muʿtazili claim that the Quran is created, affirming its eternity.  

- Occasionalism: All events are directly willed by God; humans have "acquired" (kasb) actions but no independent power.  

Prominent Scholars & Key Texts  

- Al-Ghazali (d. 1111) – "The Incoherence of the Philosophers" (Tahafut al-Falasifa) refutes Aristotelian philosophy.  

- Al-Baqillani (d. 1013) – "The Introduction to the Proofs of Creed" (Al-Tamhid) systematised Ashʿari theology.  

- Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 1210) – "The Major Commentary" (Tafsir al-Kabir) blends philosophy with theology.  

- Al-Sanusi (d. 1490) – "The Sanusi Creed" (Umm al-Barahin) is a foundational Ashʿari primer.  

Influence Today  

Dominant among Shafiʿi and Maliki scholars, prevalent in Egypt, North Africa, Syria and Southeast Asia.  

2. The Māturīdī School  

Founder and Origins  

The Māturīdī school was founded by Abu Mansur al-Māturīdī (d. 944 CE / 333 AH) in Samarkand (Central Asia). It emerged independently but shares many similarities with Ashʿarism.  

Key Doctrines  

- Divine Attributes: Accepts them without excessive allegory (tawīl), unlike Ashʿaris.  

- Reason & Revelation: Grants a stronger role to reason (ʿaql) in deriving theological truths.  

- Faith (Īmān): Defines it as "affirmation by the heart" and does not increase or decrease (contrary to some Ashʿaris).  

- Human Free Will: Closer to genuine human agency than Ashʿari occasionalism.  

Prominent Scholars & Key Texts  

- Al-Nasafi (d. 1142) – "The Nasafi Creed" (Aqidah al-Nasafiyya) is a central Māturīdi text.  

- Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi (d. 1099) – "Principles of Religion" (Usul al-Din) expands Māturīdi thought.  

- Al-Taftazani (d. 1390) – "A Commentary on the Nasafi Creed" (Sharh al-Aqa’id al-Nasafiyya) is a key scholarly work.  

Influence Today  

Predominant among Hanafis, especially in Turkey, Central Asia, South Asia and the Balkans.  

3. The Athari School (Traditionalist/Literalist)  

Founder and Origins  

The Athari school is rooted in the teachings of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855 CE) and early traditionists (Ahl al-Hadith). Unlike Ashʿaris and Māturīdis, it rejects theological speculation (kalam).  

Key Doctrines  

- Divine Attributes: Accepts them literally without asking "how" (bila kayf).  

- Rejection of Kalam: Forbids rationalist theology, relying solely on Quran, Hadith and early scholars (Salaf).  

- Predestination: Strong emphasis on God’s absolute decree (qadar).  

Prominent Scholars & Key Texts  

- Ahmad ibn Hanbal – "Al-Radd ‘ala al-Jahmiyya" refutes rationalist sects.  

- Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328) – "The Creed of the Salaf" (Aqidah al-Wasitiyya) is a key Athari text.  

- Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (d. 1350) – "The Divine Decree" (Shifa al-‘Alil) defends Athari theology.  

Influence Today  

Strong in Salafi/Wahhabi movements, dominant in Saudi Arabia, the Gulf and parts of South Asia.  

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Comparison of the Three Schools  

Ashʿari: 

Divine Attributes—Metaphorical interpretation

Reason vs. Revelation—Subordinates reason to scripture

Human Free Will—Occasionalism (kasb)

Faith (Īmān)—Can increase/decrease

Māturīdī:

Divine Attributes—Minimal interpretation

Reason vs. Revelation—Stronger role for reason

Human Free Will—Greater human agency

Faith (Īmān)—Unchanging (heart affirmation)

Athari:

Divine Attributes—Literal (bila kayf)

Reason vs. Revelation—Rejects theological reasoning

Human Free Will—God’s will is absolute

Faith (Īmān)—Includes speech & action

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Shia Creedal School: The Imami (Twelver) Theology  

Shia Islam, particularly Twelver (Imami) Shiaism, follows a creedal school influenced by:  

- Early Imams (e.g. Jaʿfar al-Sadiq, d. 765 CE).  

- Rationalist tradition (closer to Muʿtazili thought in some aspects).  

Key Doctrines  

- Divine Justice (Adl): Humans have genuine free will.  

- Imamate: Belief in the infallibility (ismah) of the Twelve Imams.  

- Temporary Marriage (Mutʿah): Permitted (unlike Sunni schools).  

Prominent Scholars & Texts  

- Al-Shaykh al-Saduq (d. 991) – "The Creed of the Imamiyyah" (Risalat al-Iʿtiqadat).  

- Al-Shaykh al-Mufid (d. 1022) – "The Correction of the Creed" (Tashih al-Iʿtiqad).  

- Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (d. 1274) – "Tajrid al-Iʿtiqad" (a philosophical theology text).  

Influence Today  

Dominant in Iran, Iraq, Lebanon and parts of South Asia.  

Conclusion  

The Ashʿari, Māturīdī and Athari schools represent Sunni Islam’s theological diversity, while Twelver Shia theology follows its own creedal tradition. Despite differences, all emphasise Tawhid (Oneness of God) and the authority of revelation, differing mainly in methodology. Understanding these schools helps appreciate the rich intellectual heritage of Islamic theology.

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Miscellaneous Points: 

* Students of Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328 CE)  : Imam Ibn Taymiyyah was an expert in Islamic theology, jurisprudence, hadith, tafsir, philosophy, polemics, and spirituality—a true polymath whose influence persists in modern Islamic thought, particularly in Salafi and Hanbali circles. He authored between 300 and 600 works.

1) Qayyim al-Jawziyyah (1292–1350 CE): Fiqh 

2) Shams al-Din Ibn Muflih (d. 1362 CE): Fiqh

3) Ibn Abd al-Hadi (d. 1343 CE): Hadith 

4)Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr adh-Dhahabi (d. 1348 CE): Islamic history and biographies

5) Ibn Kathir (d. 1373 CE): Tafsir 

* Ibn al-Arabi (1165–1240 CE), also known as Muhyiddin Ibn al-Arabi, was a renowned Andalusian Muslim scholar, mystic, and philosopher, often called the "Greatest Master" (al-Shaykh al-Akbar) in Sufi tradition. He is best known for his contributions to Islamic mysticism, particularly through his concepts of "Unity of Being" (Wahdat al-Wujud) and his extensive writings on spiritual metaphysics. His major works include Al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya (The Meccan Revelations) and Fusus al-Hikam (The Bezels of Wisdom), which explore the nature of divine reality, human spirituality, and the cosmos. 

Best Students:

1) Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi (d. 1274 CE): Ibn al-Arabi’s most prominent student and stepson, al-Qunawi systematized his teacher’s metaphysical ideas, particularly Wahdat al-Wujud, in works like Miftah al-Ghayb (Key to the Unseen). He bridged Sufism and philosophy, influencing later thinkers like Mulla Sadra. 

2) Badr al-Din al-Habashi (d. 1240 CE): A close disciple who accompanied Ibn al-Arabi during his travels, al-Habashi was known for his deep spiritual insight and loyalty, helping preserve and transmit Ibn al-Arabi’s teachings.

3) Isma’il ibn Sawdakin (d. 1248 CE): A key student who recorded and disseminated Ibn al-Arabi’s teachings, particularly in Damascus, ensuring their spread across the Islamic world. 

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Books On Aqeedah: 

1. 'Al-Aqidah Al-Waasitiyyah' written by the Hanbali jurist Taqi al-Din ibn Taymiyyah in the year 1297 CE. 

2. Kitab Al Tawhid

Book by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi

3. 'Kitab at-Tawheed' written by the Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. 

4. Zaad Al Khateeb written by Dr Hafiz Muhammad Ishaq Zahid 

[ الاستواء معلوم،والکیف مجھول،والسؤال عنہ بدعۃ،والإیمان بہ واجب'' یعنی ’’ استواء کا معنی معلوم ہے لیکن اس کی کیفیت معلوم نہیں ہے ، اس لئے اس کے بارے میں سوال کرنا بدعت ہے اور اس پر ایمان لانا واجب ہے۔]

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